“Why is there something rather than nothing?” is a question that lies at the heart of philosophy. In Western philosophy, it’s historically been a common idea that the world can be traced back to a single, fundamental cause. In recent times, however, this has been challenged. Perhaps there is no original cause or explanation for the world, and the question itself is mistaken. Even so, the attempt to show where the mistake lies requires an examination of the notions of existence, causality, and explanation.
Some of the questions raised are: does the universe require a timeless, non-natural cause? What does it mean for something to be a cause or explanation for something else? Can anything be a cause or explanation for itself? Can there be fundamental objects with nothing deeper explaining them?
Metaphysics of Causality and Explanation:
A well-known concept in philosophy is the principle of sufficient reason (PSR). In one form, it states that everything must have a reason, cause, or ground.
One justification for this principle is that it seems to be crucial to rational inquiry. When facts about the world are discovered, we often don’t take them for granted with no reason or explanation for their existence. When it rains, for example, the cause of the rain is the buildup of water in clouds exceeding a threshold, and then the water is released and pulled down by gravity. The buildup of water is the result of condensation of water which was previously evaporated by the sun or other heat sources. Those heat sources in turn are explained by other prior causes and so on.
That raises the question of whether a chain of causes can be infinite. There are arguments for and against the possibility. One argument against an infinite series of past temporal causes is that if there were such a series, it would not be possible to reach the present. This seems to require an infinite number of events to pass, which is a contradiction, as an infinite series of events can’t be traversed.
There have also been attempts to show that while infinite causal chains may be possible, the chains made up of objects which are contingent, as in they can either exist or not exist, still require an external cause.
As straightforward as the PSR may seem, complications arise for at least some formulations of it. When combined with an account of causation in which effects must follow from their causes, it seems like the PSR requires that nothing is contingent. In other words, everything is necessary, and every event and object inevitably exists.
However, even if some forms of the PSR have their difficulties, there may be more refined versions which hold true. Often, these refined principles are used to conclude that there is a first cause or ultimate explanation for the rest of reality.
Candidates for the First Cause/Ultimate Explanation:
One candidate for a first cause is an initial natural state. There have been models of such a state which are necessary or contingent, and ones which have a finite past or infinite one. Either way, the appeal of this kind of first cause is that it fits with a principle known as the causal closure of the physical. Since all observed causes and effects don’t defy the laws of nature, it may be presumed that all of causal reality is composed of natural objects. This satisfies metaphysical naturalists, but at the present state, it is problematic for a number of reasons.
One reason a contingent first cause is problematic is the principle that “something can’t come from nothing”. If the universe, especially if it has a finite past, did not come from any prior cause, then that is a defiance of this principle. If we accept that this principle is false, then we seem to be lacking in an explanation for the observation that things don’t constantly start existing for no reason. If the universe can “pop” into existence, why not anything else?
One modern philosopher, Graham Oppy, has suggested instead that the natural initial state is necessary. To explain the existence of the world, he claims that objective non-deterministic effects followed from that initial state. A universe with a finite past would be explained by that initial state, and so would the universe of contingent objects.
Two candidates other than conventional naturalism for ultimate explanations of the world are theism and axiarchism.
Theism in the West is typically construed as the assertion that an omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God exists. Theologians and philosophers also describe him as necessary, and there are many arguments which attempt to demonstrate his existence.
Cosmological arguments are a class of arguments which start from facts about the universe to conclude the existence of God. Arguments from contingency are an example. In general, they take the existence of the contingent universe, and proceed to show that they must be caused by a being with the previously described omni-properties. Another is the Kalam cosmological argument, which asserts the finiteness of the universe’s past, and attempts to reach the conclusion of God’s existence.
In modern day philosophy, a new argument is the appearance of fine-tuning. Based on our current understanding of physics, it is unlikely that physical constants which allow for life would result from chance, as might be expected from non-theistic worldviews. Therefore, a cosmic designer who chose those constants is proposed, and the tri-omni God is thought to be a plausible candidate for such a designer.
The most well-known non-theistic alternative to this is a multiverse, but that faces powerful objections as well, such as lacking in simplicity and leading to results such as Boltzmann brains.
However, a major issue with theism is the problem of evil. Many interpretations of God’s omni-properties would conclude that there are aspects of the world which make God’s existence highly unlikely. Natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes are evidence that any being who did not prevent the deaths of innocents involved either was not able to prevent them, which rules out omnipotence, or not willing to prevent them, which rules out omnibenevolence. Disease, as well as human actions such as murder and sexual assault, also count as evidence against such a being.
Axiarchism is a worldview which may account for the problem of evil better than theism. In summary, it is the view that values determine reality. This may be a non-causal relationship, but still one in which aspects of the world, such as life-permitting physical laws, are explained. It may not just be moral values which determine reality, but aesthetic or more general values.
One description of the values is that they are abstract objects, existing outside of space and time, and having no causal relationships. They are also necessary. This is a form of platonism, and the connection between value and existence has a long history. In many cases, this was used in forms of theism, such as Thomas Aquinas who declared that God is Being. Other theologians have also claimed that existence itself is good, and that evil can only exist as absences or privations of goodness.
The appeal of values as an explanation, whether included in a form of theism or not, is that these values would not only exist, but they are normative. They don’t just describe reality, they place aims for reality to head toward. For those who find the existence of objective value plausible, axiarchism is a powerful possibility.
Questions:
1. Which, if any, of the candidates for a first cause or ultimate explanation is the most likely?
2. What alternatives could there be for such a cause or explanation?
3. Could we ever have enough evidence to single out one candidate and eliminate the others? What would constitute such evidence?
4. Is it likely for there to be any such cause or explanation?
We meet in person and online. In person will be at the cafeteria of the applied physics lab. Snack and drinks are available for online purchase. Pizza will be provided as well at a price of $2/slice. Online will be: https://teams.live.com/meet/93583191724730?p=hY3jxVvnOciVl2aRn5
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